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Survey of Hydrogen Production and Utilization Methods Table of Contents

Survey of Hydrogen Production and Utilization Methods.
Volume 2: Discussion - 1975

Gregory, Derek P.
Pangborn, Jon B.
Gillis, Jay C.

National Technical Information Service

Section 1 - 5 (5.07MB)
Section 6 - 10 (5.48MB)
Section 11 - 13 (5.45MB)
Section 14 - 15 (2.05MB)

Table of Contents (883kb)

1

 Introduction 1
  Purpose and Objectives 1
Scope and Definitions 2

2

 Potential Demands for Hydrogen 4
  Introduction 4
Model I Energy Demand and Supply 5
Model I Bases and Information Sources 5
Model I Assumptions 6
Model I Overall Demand and Supply Projections 8
Model I Energy Demand and Supply, by Sector 8
Model I Demand and Potentials for Hydrogen Production 12
Model II Energy Demand and Supply 14
Model II Bases and Information Sources 14
Model II Assumptions 15
Model II Overall Demand and Supply Projections 16
Model II Energy Demand and Supply, by Sector 18
Model II Demand and Potentials for Hydrogen Production 18
Summary of Potential Hydrogen Demand 22
Present and Future Demands for Specific Uses of Hydrogen 23
Extrapolation of Present-Day Hydrogen Demands 23
Future Uses of Hydrogen as a Chemical Feedstock 24
Hydrogen as a Substitute for Natural Gas 26
References Cited in this Section 26

3

 Hydrogen Production by Electrolysis 28
  Introduction 28
Principles of Electrolysis 29
Energy Requirements for Electrolysis 31
Effect of Pressure on the Decomposition Voltage 35
Basic Designs of Electrolyzer Cells 38
Electrolyzer-System Designs 41
Power Supply 41
Cooling Systems 42
Gas-Removal Systems 43
Survey of Types of Industrial Electrolyzers 44
The Electrolyser Corporation 44
Teledyne Isotopes, Inc. 47
General Electric Company 52
Life Systems, Inc. 56
Lurgi GmbH 60
Cominco, Ltd. 62
De Nora, S. p. A. 62
Comparative Evaluation of Various Electrolyzers 65
Survey of Electrolyzer Manufacturers 66
Status of Industrial Electrolytic Hydrogen Production 67
Hydrogen Production by the Electrolysis of Impure Water 67
Electrolysis of Seawater 67
Electrolysis of Unpurified Water 70
Electrolyzer - Feedwater Quality Standards 70
Energy Required for Water Purification 70
References Cited in this Section 72
 

4

 Cost of Electrolytic Hydrogen 74
  Factors Considered in Overall Hydrogen-Cost Calculations 74
Optimization of Operating Characteristics 79

5

 The Manufacture of Hydrogen from Coal 82
  250 Billion Btu of Hydrogen per Day From Montana Sub bituminous Coal by the Koppers-Totzek Process 84
Coal Storage and Preparation 84
Coal gasification for Production of Synthesis Gas 86
Upgrading of the Raw Gas to Produce Hydrogen 88
Description of a 250 Billion Btu/Day Plant Producing Hydrogen from Montana Subbituminous Coal by the U-GAS Process 91
Generation of Synthesis Gas 92
The Manufacture of Hydrogen From Synthesis Gas 94
250 Billion Btu of Hydrogen per Day from Montana Subbituminous Coal by the Steam-Iron Process 100
Coal Storage and Preparation 100
Producer-Gas Generator and Steam-Iron Reactor 102
Oxidizer-Effluent Upgrading 104
Power Generation from Reductor Off-Gas Using a Combined Power Cycle 105

6

 Hydrogen Production by Thermochemical Methods 108
  Introduction 108
Basic Thermodynamic Considerations 111
Efficiency Calculations for Thermochemical Cycles 120
Importance of Energy Efficiency for Thermochemical Cycles 120
Techniques for Estimating Cycle Efficiency 122
Evaluating Cycles 128
Heat Sources Specifications and Availability 133
Technology Development and Identifiable Gaps 139
References Cited in this Section 142

7

 Production of Hydrogen by Photosynthetic Processes 145
  Introduction and Problem Definition 145
Historical Review of Photosynthesis Research 146
The Energetics of Solar Radiation and the Thermodynamics of Photosynthesis 147
Series Model for Photosynthesis 148
Possible Approaches to Hydrogen Production 151
Hydrogen Production by Natural Biological Processes 152
The Nature and Efficiency of Nitrogenase Reductions 155
Genetic Engineering 155
In Vitro Processes 156
Cell-Free Reconstituted Systems 158
Two-Stage Photochemical and Fermentation Processes 158
Fermentation of Photosynthesis Residues 158
Nonbiological Photolysis 159
Efficiency of Solar Utilization 162
The Basic Photosynthetic Process 162
Marine and Agricultural Photosynthesis 163
Potential Efficiencies of Artificial In-Vitro Processes 164
Current Status and Future Prospects of Photosynthesis Research 164
Electron-Transport System 164
Carbon Dioxide Reduction 165
Oxygen Evolution and PS II 165
Stoichiometric Pathways 165
Photophosphorylation 166
Nature of the Photosynthetic Unit 167
Structure and Function of Chlorophyll 169
Primary Electron Donor and Acceptor 173
Nonbiological Photolsis 176
Requirements for Efficient Photolysis by Sunlight 176
Photochemical Sensitizers 178
Summary and Conclusions 179
References Cited in this Section 183

8

 Hydrogen Production by Other Processes 188
  Hydrogen Production from Waste Materials 188
Hydrogen Production by Radiation 189
Chemonuclear Water Splitting 190
Nuclear-Photochemical Water Splitting 192
Direct Thermal Decomposition fo Water to Produce Hydrogen 193
Temperature Dependence of Hydrogen Production 193
Thermodynamic Considerations and Energy Requirements 194
Estimates of Theoretical and Ideal Energy Efficiencies 196
References Cited in this Section 198

9

 Commercial Technology for Hydrogen Production 200
  Catalytic Steam Reforming of Natural Gas 200
Partial Oxidation of Hydrocarbons 202
References Cited in this Section 204

10

 Survey of Patented Hydrogen-Production Processes 205
  Classification of Processes 206
Evaluation of Processes 207
Electrolysis of Pure Water 208
Overvoltage Reduction 208
Electrolyte Systems 210
Cell Design 210
System Design 211
Thermally Assisted Electrolysis 211
Electrolysis of Impure Water and Other Solutions 212
Coal and Related Sources 213
Hydrocarbons 213
Oil Shale 214
Synthetic Fuels 215
Thermochemical Hydrogen Production 215
Solar, Windpower, Geothermal, and Ocean Thermal Gradients 216
Waste Materials 216
Other Sources 216
References Cited in this Section 218

11

 The Transmission, Storage, and Distribution of Hydrogen 220
  Hydrogen Transmission 220
IGT Pipeline Optimization Study 221
Pipeline Components 221
Turbocompressors and Drivers 221
Reciprocating Compressors and Drivers 222
Other Compressors 223
Initial Compressor 223
Optimum Operating Conditions 224
 
Euratom 227
General Electric Co. (Tempo), Calif. 228
National Bureau of Standards 231
Central Electricity Generating Board (CEGB), England 232
American Electric Power Service Copra. 234
Stevens Institute of Technology 234
University of California, San Diego 235
Discussion of Transmission Studies 236
Hydrogen Embrittlement 238
Hydrogen Storage 241
Methods of Hydrogen Storage 242
Metal-Hyride Hydrogen Storage 242
Liquid-Hydrogen Storage 246
Underground Compressed-Gas Storage 250
Depleted oil and Gas Reservoirs 251
Aquifier Storage 251
Salt-Cavern Storage 252
Natural or Mined Cavities 252
Cavities Induced by Nuclear Explosions 252
Linepack Compressed-Gas Storage 253
Underwater Compressed-Gas Storage 253
Aboveground Compressed-Gas Storage 253
Concluding Comments 253
Hydrogen in Gas-Distribution Systems 255
Introduction 255
The Gas-Distribution System 255
Hydrogen Compatibility and Problem Areas 259
Volumetric Flow 259
Odorants and Illuminants 260
Leakage 261
Line Purging and Maintenance 263
Peculiar Temperature Effects 263
Concluding Comments 264
References Cited in this Section 264

12

 Industrial Hydrogen Utilization 267
  Present Industrial Uses of Hydrogen - an Overview 267
Projections for Hydrogen Utilization 269
Hydrogen Utilization for Ammonia Production 270
Ammonia Produced from Natural Gas 274
Hydrogen Utilization for Methanol Production 278
Hydrogen Use in the Oil Refining 282
Metallurgy 284
Direct Reduction of Iron Ore 285
Direct Reduction via Hydrogen 286
Use of Hydrogen as an Industrial Fuel 291
Present Use 291
Potential Use 294
Hydrogenations and Oxo-Alcohol Production 298
Other Industrial Uses of Hydrogen 298
General 298
Hydrogenation of Fats and Oils 298
References Cited in this Section 299

13

 Residential Use of Hydrogen 301
  Residential Energy-Use Patterns 301
Space Heating 305
Water Heating 307
Cooking 308
Clothes Drying 309
Electricity Consumption 309
The Use of Hydrogen in Domestic Appliances 310
Conversion of Existing Appliances 312
Atmospheric Burners 312
Fuel Flow Ratio 320
Air/Fuel Ratio 320
Primary-Air Antrainment 320
Burning Velocity 322
Contemporary Atmospheric Burners Without Primary Air 330
Emissions from Hydrogen-Fueled Burners 332
Discussion 332
Replacement Burners 333
Burner-Head Port Sizing 333
Burner Configuration 333
Burner Construction Material 334
Burner Ignition 334
Noise 335
Appliance Regulators 336
Development of Catalytic Appliances 337
Low-Temperature Catalytic Appliances 337
High-Temperature Catalytic Appliances 338
Advantages of Catalytic Combustion 339
Cost of Catalytic Appliances 341
References Cited in this Section 341

14

 Hydrogen as a Feedstock for Synthetic Fuel Processes 343
  Coal Conversion to Substitute Natural Gas 343
Coal Conversion to Low-Btu Gas 356
Coal Conversion to Methanol 359
Coal Conversion to Liquid Hydrocarbons 363
Oil Shale Conversion to Liquid and Gaseous Hydrocarbons 368
The Economics of Outside-Hydrogen Utilization 371
References Cited in this section 373

15

 Research and Development Recommendations 377
  Production of Hydrogen 377
Electrolysis 377
Coal Gasification 378
Thermochemical Methods 379
Application of Controlled Thermonuclear Fusion 379
Photosynthesis 379
Delivery and Storage of Hydrogen 381
Pipeline-Materials Compatibility Evaluation 381
Underground and Hydride Storage of Hydrogen 382
Behavior of Hydrogen in Gas-Distribution Equipment 382
Improved Cryogenic Systems 382
Hydrogen Odorants and Illuminants 383
Utilization of Hydrogen 383
Studies of Hydrogen Utilization in Industry 383
Development of Hydrogen-Fueled Appliances 385
By-Product Credits 386